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Aristotle wrote in his book Meteorology about an Antarctic region in c. 350 B.C. Marinus of Tyre reportedly used the name in his unpreserved world map from the 2nd century A.D. The Roman authors Hyginus and Apuleius (1–2 centuries A.D.) used for the [[South Pole]] the romanised Greek name ''polus antarcticus'', from which derived the Old French ''pole antartike'' (modern ''pôle antarctique'') attested in 1270, and from there the Middle English ''pol antartik'' in a 1391 technical treatise by Geoffrey Chaucer. | Aristotle wrote in his book Meteorology about an Antarctic region in c. 350 B.C. Marinus of Tyre reportedly used the name in his unpreserved world map from the 2nd century A.D. The Roman authors Hyginus and Apuleius (1–2 centuries A.D.) used for the [[South Pole]] the romanised Greek name ''polus antarcticus'', from which derived the Old French ''pole antartike'' (modern ''pôle antarctique'') attested in 1270, and from there the Middle English ''pol antartik'' in a 1391 technical treatise by Geoffrey Chaucer. | ||
Before acquiring its present geographical connotations, the term was used for other locations that could be defined as "opposite to the north". For example, the short-lived French colony established in Brazil in the 16th century was called "France Antarctique". | Before acquiring its present geographical connotations, the term was used for other locations that could be defined as "opposite to the north". For example, the short-lived French colony established in [[Brazilian Antarctica|Brazil]] in the 16th century was called "France Antarctique". | ||
The first formal use of the name "Antarctica" as a continental name in the 1890s is attributed to the Scottish cartographer John George Bartholomew. | The first formal use of the name "Antarctica" as a continental name in the 1890s is attributed to the Scottish cartographer John George Bartholomew. | ||
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European maps continued to show this hypothesized land until Captain James Cook's ships, HMS Resolution and Adventure, crossed the Antarctic Circle on 17 January 1773, in December 1773 and again in January 1774. Cook came within about 120 km (75 mi) of the Antarctic coast before retreating in the face of field ice in January 1773. The first confirmed sighting of Antarctica can be narrowed down to the crews of ships captained by three individuals. | ===Early exploration=== | ||
[[File:Admiral Bellingshausen.jpg|thumb|Fabian von Bellingshausen]] | |||
European maps continued to show this hypothesized land until Captain James Cook's ships, HMS Resolution and Adventure, crossed the [[Antarctic Circle]] on 17 January 1773, in December 1773 and again in January 1774. Cook came within about 120 km (75 mi) of the Antarctic coast before retreating in the face of field ice in January 1773. The first confirmed sighting of Antarctica can be narrowed down to the crews of ships captained by three individuals. | |||
According to various organisations, ships captained by three men sighted Antarctica or its ice shelf in 1820: [[Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen]] (a captain in the Imperial Russian Navy), Edward Bransfield (a captain in the Royal Navy), and Nathaniel Palmer (a sealer out of Stonington, Connecticut). | According to various organisations, ships captained by three men sighted Antarctica or its ice shelf in 1820: [[Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen]] (a captain in the Imperial Russian Navy), Edward Bransfield (a captain in the Royal Navy), and Nathaniel Palmer (a sealer out of Stonington, Connecticut). | ||
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In December 1839, as part of the United States Exploring Expedition of 1838–42 conducted by the United States Navy (sometimes called the "Ex. Ex.", or "the Wilkes Expedition"), an expedition sailed from Sydney, Australia, into the [[Southern Ocean]] and reported the discovery "of an Antarctic continent west of the Balleny Islands" on 25 January 1840. That part of Antarctica was later named "Wilkes Land", a name it retains to this day. | In December 1839, as part of the United States Exploring Expedition of 1838–42 conducted by the United States Navy (sometimes called the "Ex. Ex.", or "the Wilkes Expedition"), an expedition sailed from Sydney, Australia, into the [[Southern Ocean]] and reported the discovery "of an Antarctic continent west of the Balleny Islands" on 25 January 1840. That part of Antarctica was later named "Wilkes Land", a name it retains to this day. | ||
Explorer [[James Clark Ross]] passed through what is now known as the Ross Sea and discovered Ross Island (both of which were named after him) in 1841. He sailed along a huge wall of ice that was later named the Ross Ice Shelf. Mount Erebus and Mount Terror are named after two ships from his expedition: HMS Erebus and Terror. Mercator Cooper landed in [[East Antarctica]] on 26 January 1853. | Explorer [[James Clark Ross]] passed through what is now known as the Ross Sea and discovered Ross Island (both of which were named after him) in 1841. He sailed along a huge wall of ice that was later named the Ross Ice Shelf. [[Mount Erebus]] and Mount Terror are named after two ships from his expedition: HMS ''Erebus'' and [[HMS Terror|HMS ''Terror'']]. Mercator Cooper landed in [[East Antarctica]] on 26 January 1853. | ||
During the Nimrod Expedition led by [[Ernest Shackleton]] in 1907, parties led by Edgeworth David became the first to climb Mount Erebus and to reach the [[South Magnetic Pole]]. Douglas Mawson, who assumed the leadership of the Magnetic Pole party on their perilous return, went on to lead several expeditions until retiring in 1931. In addition, Shackleton himself and three other members of his expedition made several firsts in December 1908 – February 1909: they were the first humans to traverse the [[Ross Ice Shelf]], the first to traverse the [[Transantarctic Mountains]] (via the [[Beardmore Glacier]]), and the first to set foot on the South Polar Plateau. An expedition led by Norwegian polar explorer [[Roald Amundsen]] from the ship ''Fram'' became the first to reach the geographic [[South Pole]] on 14 December 1911, using a route from the Bay of Whales and up the Axel Heiberg Glacier. One month later, the doomed Scott Expedition reached the pole. | ===Modern day exploration=== | ||
[[File:Scott's party at the South Pole.jpg|thumb|left|British explorer Robert Scott at the South Pole]] | |||
During the Nimrod Expedition led by [[Ernest Shackleton]] in 1907, parties led by Edgeworth David became the first to climb Mount Erebus and to reach the [[South Magnetic Pole]]. [[Douglas Mawson]], who assumed the leadership of the Magnetic Pole party on their perilous return, went on to lead several expeditions until retiring in 1931. In addition, Shackleton himself and three other members of his expedition made several firsts in December 1908 – February 1909: they were the first humans to traverse the [[Ross Ice Shelf]], the first to traverse the [[Transantarctic Mountains]] (via the [[Beardmore Glacier]]), and the first to set foot on the South Polar Plateau. An expedition led by Norwegian polar explorer [[Roald Amundsen]] from the ship ''[[Fram]]'' became the first to reach the geographic [[South Pole]] on 14 December 1911, using a route from the [[Bay of Whales]] and up the Axel Heiberg Glacier. One month later, the doomed Scott Expedition reached the pole. | |||
[[Richard E. Byrd]] led several voyages to the Antarctic by plane in the 1930s and 1940s. He is credited with implementing mechanized land transport on the continent and conducting extensive geological and biological research. The first women to set foot on Antarctica did so in the 1930s with Caroline Mikkelsen landing on an island of Antarctica in 1935, and Ingrid Christensen stepping onto the mainland in 1937. | [[Richard E. Byrd]] led several voyages to the Antarctic by plane in the 1930s and 1940s. He is credited with implementing mechanized land transport on the continent and conducting extensive geological and biological research. The first women to set foot on Antarctica did so in the 1930s with Caroline Mikkelsen landing on an island of Antarctica in 1935, and Ingrid Christensen stepping onto the mainland in 1937. | ||
It was not until 31 October 1956 that anyone set foot on the [[South Pole]] again; on that day a U.S. Navy group led by Rear Admiral George J. Dufek successfully landed an aircraft there. The first women to step onto the South Pole were Pam Young, Jean Pearson, Lois Jones, Eileen McSaveney, Kay Lindsay and Terry Tickhill in 1969. | It was not until 31 October 1956 that anyone set foot on the [[South Pole]] again; on that day a U.S. Navy group led by Rear [[Admiral George J. Dufek]] successfully landed an aircraft there. The first women to step onto the South Pole were Pam Young, Jean Pearson, Lois Jones, Eileen McSaveney, Kay Lindsay and Terry Tickhill in 1969. | ||
The first person to sail single-handed to Antarctica was the New Zealander David Henry Lewis, in 1972, in the 10-meter steel sloop ''Ice Bird''. | The first person to sail single-handed to Antarctica was the New Zealander David Henry Lewis, in 1972, in the 10-meter steel sloop ''Ice Bird''. | ||
==Geography== | ==Geography== | ||
[[File:Hull Glacier.jpg|thumb|400px|The Hull Glacier is typical of the glaciated landscape of Antarctica]] | |||
There are a number of rivers and lakes in Antarctica, the longest river being the Onyx. The largest lake, Vostok, is one of the largest sub-glacial lakes in the world. Antarctica covers more than 14 million km2 (5,400,000 sq mi), making it the fifth-largest continent, about 1.3 times as large as Europe. The coastline measures 17,968 km (11,165 mi) and is mostly characterized by ice formations, as the following table shows: | There are a number of rivers and lakes in Antarctica, the longest river being the Onyx. The largest lake, Vostok, is one of the largest sub-glacial lakes in the world. Antarctica covers more than 14 million km2 (5,400,000 sq mi), making it the fifth-largest continent, about 1.3 times as large as Europe. The coastline measures 17,968 km (11,165 mi) and is mostly characterized by ice formations, as the following table shows: | ||
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==Human population== | ==Human population== | ||
[[File:Orientation to Fosdick Mountains.jpg|thumb|Scientists working in the Fosdick Mountains]] | |||
Several governments maintain permanent manned research stations on the continent. The number of people conducting and supporting scientific research and other work on the continent and its nearby islands varies from about 1,000 in winter to about 5,000 in the summer, giving it a population density between 70 and 350 inhabitants per million square kilometers (180 and 900 per million square miles) at these times. Many of the stations are staffed year-round, the winter-over personnel typically arriving from their home countries for a one-year assignment. An Orthodox church—Trinity Church, opened in 2004 at the Russian Bellingshausen Station—is manned year-round by one or two priests, who are similarly rotated every year. | Several governments maintain permanent manned research stations on the continent. The number of people conducting and supporting scientific research and other work on the continent and its nearby islands varies from about 1,000 in winter to about 5,000 in the summer, giving it a population density between 70 and 350 inhabitants per million square kilometers (180 and 900 per million square miles) at these times. Many of the stations are staffed year-round, the winter-over personnel typically arriving from their home countries for a one-year assignment. An Orthodox church—Trinity Church, opened in 2004 at the Russian Bellingshausen Station—is manned year-round by one or two priests, who are similarly rotated every year. | ||
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==Animals== | ==Animals== | ||
Few terrestrial vertebrates live in Antarctica, and those that do are limited to the sub-Antarctic islands. Invertebrate life includes microscopic mites like the ''Alaskozetes antarcticus'', lice, nematodes, tardigrades, rotifers, [[krill]] and springtails. The flightless midge ''Belgica antarctica'', up to 6 mm (1⁄4 in) in size, is the largest purely terrestrial animal in Antarctica. The [[snow petrel]] is one of only three birds that breed exclusively in Antarctica. | [[File:EmperorPenguinFeedingChick.jpg|thumb|Emperor penguin with chick]] | ||
Few terrestrial vertebrates live in Antarctica, and those that do are limited to the sub-Antarctic islands. Invertebrate life includes microscopic mites like the ''Alaskozetes antarcticus'', lice, nematodes, tardigrades, rotifers, [[krill]] and springtails. The flightless midge ''[[Antarctic midge|Belgica antarctica]]'', up to 6 mm (1⁄4 in) in size, is the largest purely terrestrial animal in Antarctica. The [[snow petrel]] is one of only three birds that breed exclusively in Antarctica. | |||
Some species of marine animals exist and rely, directly or indirectly, on the phytoplankton. Antarctic sea life includes penguins, [[blue whale]]s, [[orca]]s, [[colossal squid]]s and fur seals. The [[emperor penguin]] is the only penguin that breeds during the winter in Antarctica, while the [[Adélie penguin]] breeds farther south than any other penguin. The southern rockhopper penguin has distinctive feathers around the eyes, giving the appearance of elaborate eyelashes. [[King penguin]]s, [[chinstrap penguin]]s, and [[gentoo penguin]]s also breed in the Antarctic. | Some species of marine animals exist and rely, directly or indirectly, on the phytoplankton. Antarctic sea life includes penguins, [[blue whale]]s, [[orca]]s, [[colossal squid]]s and fur seals. The [[emperor penguin]] is the only penguin that breeds during the winter in Antarctica, while the [[Adélie penguin]] breeds farther south than any other penguin. The southern rockhopper penguin has distinctive feathers around the eyes, giving the appearance of elaborate eyelashes. [[King penguin]]s, [[chinstrap penguin]]s, and [[gentoo penguin]]s also breed in the Antarctic. | ||
The Antarctic fur seal was very heavily hunted in the 18th and 19th centuries for its pelt by sealers from the United States and the United Kingdom. The [[Weddell seal]], a "true seal", is named after Sir James Weddell, commander of British sealing expeditions in the Weddell Sea. [[Antarctic krill]], which congregate in large schools, is the keystone species of the ecosystem of the [[Southern Ocean]], and is an important food organism for whales, seals, [[leopard seal]]s, fur seals, squid, icefish, penguins, albatrosses and many other birds. | The Antarctic fur seal was very heavily hunted in the 18th and 19th centuries for its pelt by sealers from the United States and the United Kingdom. The [[Weddell seal]], a "true seal", is named after Sir James Weddell, commander of British sealing expeditions in the [[Weddell Sea]]. [[Antarctic krill]], which congregate in large schools, is the keystone species of the ecosystem of the [[Southern Ocean]], and is an important food organism for whales, seals, [[leopard seal]]s, fur seals, squid, icefish, penguins, albatrosses and many other birds. | ||
A census of sea life carried out during the International Polar Year and which involved some 500 researchers was released in 2010. The research is part of the global Census of Marine Life (CoML) and has disclosed some remarkable findings. More than 235 marine organisms live in both polar regions, having bridged the gap of 12,000 km (7,456 mi). Large animals such as some cetaceans and birds make the round trip annually. More surprising are small forms of life such as sea cucumbers, and free-swimming snails found in both polar oceans. Various factors may aid in their distribution – fairly uniform temperatures of the deep ocean at the poles and the equator which differ by no more than 5 °C, and the major current systems or marine conveyor belt which transport eggs and larval stages. | A census of sea life carried out during the International Polar Year and which involved some 500 researchers was released in 2010. The research is part of the global Census of Marine Life (CoML) and has disclosed some remarkable findings. More than 235 marine organisms live in both polar regions, having bridged the gap of 12,000 km (7,456 mi). Large animals such as some cetaceans and birds make the round trip annually. More surprising are small forms of life such as sea cucumbers, and free-swimming snails found in both polar oceans. Various factors may aid in their distribution – fairly uniform temperatures of the deep ocean at the poles and the equator which differ by no more than 5 °C, and the major current systems or marine conveyor belt which transport eggs and larval stages. | ||
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[[Category:Geography of Westarctica]] | [[Category:Geography of Westarctica]] | ||
[[Category:Antarctica]] | [[Category:Antarctica]] | ||
[[Category:Featured Articles]] | |||